Smoking Cigarettes Should Be Banned as a Drug - 1854 Words

Plague and cholera caused thousands of millions of people dead. Thanks to the medical advances, those diseases were eradicated. Now, when the whole world is worrying about AIDS, which has not found the solution yet; the appearance of tobacco is causing the great harms to human life. Many people think that they have the right to smoke; smoking helps them deal with stress and work more effectively, and they are contributing to their country’s economy when they smoke. On the other hand, people will get addicted to cigarette. Moreovers, smoking has many negative effects on the smokers, the non-smokers, and the environment. Smoking cigarette extremely affects human health. Smoking can cause diseases of the lungs, liver, and heart. Smoker’s life†¦show more content†¦CO bonds to hemoglobin more tightly than CO2 and leaves the body more slowly (â€Å"Tobacco†), which allows CO to build up in the hemoglobin, in turn reducing the amount of oxygen the blood can car ry. Lacking adequate oxygen causes the damages to most of the bodys organs, including the heart and brain. Moreovers, there are thousand of other chemical elements in cigarette such as Arsenic - used in wood preservatives, Benzene - an industrial solvent, refined from crude oil, Cadmium - used in batteries, Nitrosamines - another group of DNA-damaging chemicals, and Tar - a mixture of dangerous chemicals, which adds to the flavor of cigarettes. It is released by the burning of tobacco. As it is inhaled, it enters the air cells of the lungs. This stimulant causes structural changing of bronchial mucosal glands. It affects to bronchial mucous cells and causes of losing cilia cells. These changes will increase the mucus and reduce filtration efficiency of mucus-cilia carpet (â€Å"Smoking and Cancers†). The chemical elements in cigarette are dangerous, â€Å"mutagenic† (â€Å"Tobacco†) which is the capable of increasing the frequency of mutation, or change, in the genetic material, and â€Å"carcinogenic† (â€Å"Tobacco†) which is the cancer causing. Smokers have a high risk of getting cardiovascular diseases. The Health Consequences of Smoking-Cardiovascular Disease: Report of the Surgeon had linked cigarette smoking to cerebrovascular disease (strokes) andShow MoreRelatedEssay On Cigarettes Should Be Banned707 Words   |  3 PagesIf you had the chance to save your own life, or even the lives of everyone around you, would you take it? Choosing to light another cigarette is choosing to commit another murder and taking another stab at your lungs. Smoking is the cause of one in five deaths each year in the United States alone. Since cigarettes can be considered a mass murder, they should be banned. They are dangerous to smokers and everybody around them, and that makes them vulnerable to secondhand smoke. Smokers are more proneRead MoreShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.?1400 Words   |  6 PagesShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.? Tobacco has been around in the world for over 2.5 million years. It was not until a few hundred years ago when the tobacco industry decided to put these crops into use and conjure up tobacco products for the community. A popular tobacco product in society is cigarettes, as they are cheap and simple to use. As long as one is over eighteen, acquiring cigarettes is a straightforward process for a reasonable price, albeit the sin tax. It was not until recentlyRead MoreShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.?1444 Words   |  6 Pagescommunity. A popular tobacco product in society is cigarettes, as they are cheap and simple to use. As long as one is over eighteen, acquiring cigarettes is a straightforward process for a reasonable price, albeit the sin tax. It was not until recently when cigarettes became widely controversial due to the plant containing nicotine, an addictive drug to the body. Aside from containing nicotine and other hazardous chemicals to the body, cigarettes also cause a whole host of health implications to theRead MoreTaking a Look at Smoking1682 Words   |  7 Pagesworldwide from smoking tobacco; in the United States about 480,000 people die per year (â€Å"General†). That is roughly 1,300 people a day losing their life to the most preventable cause of death in the world. The media will often cover the deaths of celebrities and individuals who die in unique accidents. However, they fail to mention the 1,300 smoking related deaths per day. Why arent these deaths announced when celebrity deaths are the headlines of the day? Teenagers who think smoking is a cool habitRead MoreShould Cigarette Smoking Be Banned?899 Words   |  4 Pages Should Cigarette Smoking Be Banned Whether or not cigarette smoking should be banned completely, has become an object of controversy in many countries. Should cigarette smoking be banned for everyone in the United States? Smoking tobacco products have been around for decades and in many different forms. According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), cigarette smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the United States. Cigarette smoking causes more than 480,000 deathsRead MoreEssay about Smoking Should be Banned in All Public Places1133 Words   |  5 PagesSmoking Should be Banned in All Public Places Every year thousands of people die because of having cancer or other tobacco related illnesses due to smoking. Smoking is seen everywhere from our own television screens to even the world wide web; the internet. Tobacco is the substance that is in these cigarettes. These tobacco products are promoted through tobacco ads that are found almost everywhere you turn. They are in magazines, television screens, on the internetRead MoreShould Cigarette Smoking Be Banned?925 Words   |  4 PagesProfessor Fuentes English 1003 April 22, 2015 Ban smoking in the United States Tobacco use is the single largest preventable cause of diseases and premature death in the United States (U.S.), yet more than 45 million Americans still smoke cigarettes. The health threat posed by tobacco has been accepted by scientists since the 17th century. In 1928, studies linked smoking to cancer. In 1964, the first Surgeon General’s report on cigarette smoking summarized the evidence that tobacco poses seriousRead MoreSmoking Cigarettes Persuasive Essay1032 Words   |  5 Pagesyears now, cigarettes have been used by a variety of people. The majority of people who smoke cigarettes know of the consequences that come with smoking; they are aware of the potential danger they are causing to themselves and the people around them. As the government, you may encounter economic benefits when people buy cigarette packs; however, these economic advantages get outweighed by the disadvantages that also come included. I believe that as the government, you should ban cigarettes in theRead MoreWhy Smoking Should Be Banned884 Words   |  4 Pagespeople smoke? Is smoking really healthy for them? How much does it cost an individual to smoke? What are the costs to society when people smoke? These are all questions that can easily be taken care of by banning cigarette smoking. It is really a disgusting sight to see a woman with a cigarette hanging out of her mouth. It is equally bad to see children with smoking cigarettes. B. Cigarette smoking should be banned, not only in restaurants but everywhere. When someone smokes cigarettes it affects theRead More Smoking should be banned all over the United States Essay1657 Words   |  7 Pages Smoking is an activity that has been around for many years for people to use and adapt into their lifestyle. It is a tool that many people use to help reduce the stresses of life and put them in a comfortable position that enables them to cope with the hectic lifestyle they are living. However, smoking has been scientifically proven to cause many types of cancer, the most common being lung cancer resulting in numerous deaths across the United States. According to BBC, Smoking is a greater cause

Phy Lab Essay - 948 Words

Geometrical Optics: Snells Law PHY101 Lab 12 Date: July 23rd, 2012 Objective: The purpose of this laboratory activity is to develop a set of experimental procedures that answer questions regarding Snells Law and the index of refraction. Ultimately, the experimental procedures you develop will allow the index of refraction to be found for water and cooking oil. 1. Explain how to experimentally determine the index of refraction of two substances. 2. Develop a set of experimental procedures to find the index of refraction for water and cooking oil. 3. Calculate the index of refraction using Snells Law. 4. Explain critical angle and total internal reflection. Materials Materials from Lab Kit: Laser†¦show more content†¦4. Once the ray goes through and refracts in the oil and comes out to air from the curving side of the cell, record the point the ray comes out by drawing a dot on the paper using the pencil. 5. Record the line that the light goes from air to oil, and connect the dot with the intersection point of the vertical line and flat cell side. 6. Measure the angle ÃŽËœ2andφ2. DATA When light passes from one medium to another, air to water for example, part of the light is reflected at the boundary and part of the light gets bent as it passes on to the new medium. The bending of this light is referred to as refraction. A sketch of this is shown below. In this example, n1 is the index of refraction for air. The index of refraction for water is n2. According to Snells Law: n1 sin ÃŽËœ = n2 sin φ n(air)=1 Note: The angles are measured with respect to the normal (vertical). Part of the scientific method is to develop laboratory procedures that test a hypothesis and answer a scientific question. Construct an Excel spreadsheet to calculate the index of refraction for water and cooking oil. Remember that in Excel angular measurement is in radians. Pi radians = 180 degrees. Record Data from the Experiment | ÃŽËœ1 | φ1 | ÃŽËœ2 | φ2 | Angle | 41.5o | 29.9o | 41.5o | 22.5o | radian | 0.23 pi | 0.166 pi | 0.23 pi | 0.125 pi | Calculations—Calculate the Index of Refraction Record Data from theShow MoreRelatedFeasibility Report On Instructions For Building A Folded Paper985 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Folded Paper Gilder as the material to introduce the concept of lift to students in PHYS 101. Problem PHYS 101: Physics for the Nonscientist is a course that aims to introduce the â€Å"nature of physical universe and the application of physical principles to life in the modern world† at Iowa State University (ISU Catalog). According to its syllabus, PHYS 101 is a 3 credits course with only lectures but not labs. 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Contrast and comparison Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley Essay Example For Students

Contrast and comparison Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley Essay I am going to compare and contrast two poems , Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley. I will pick out important bits from each poem and use them to compare and contrast the poems. The first poem Cousin Kate is all about a rejected woman. In the first four verses she wails her personal pain, about her experiences. She has been cast out and now looks back on her past life experiences with remorse. She has been betrayed by someone the one person she trusted the most. She feels dejected and , looking back on her life, she can see how foolish she was , now there is only pain and anguish. In the next two verses she recounts how her cousin Kate attracted her lords attention. Kate was swept into his home as she was years ago. He tempts Kate same way as she was when she was younger and he took interest in her. In the last two verses, She returns to her own feelings, she talks about what she would have done had she been cousin Kates position then ends the poem talking about her one victory, her pride and her shame. The poem The Seduction is also about a rejected women, this is one of the similarities. The Seduction starts off the morning after a party, a man and a woman are walking with each other, the woman is obviously drunk but the man sobriety is questionable, throughout the poem he seems quite sober. Anyhow, the first two verses are set currently, not exactly in real-time, but like a report it recounts the information. The next verse is a proper recount of the past, the night before. For the next five verses , the poem goes on about what happened that day. Over the next page the scene switches to 3 months later ,the woman is pregnant. For the rest of the poem, the feelings of the woman are described onto the paper. Her pain, her anguish, everything she is going through. First I will compare and contrast the content, the poems Cousin Kate and The Seduction are both, to simplify it down to one word about regret. In Cousin Kate the now husbandless woman has a bastard son and many regrets. She wishes she had not done such a stupid thing. In the Seduction, the woman also has a child with no father and looking back on her life has regrets. Each story is set in a different era yet have their distinct similarities, both women are outcasts from society with their bastards, the women in Cousin Kate has a son, whilst the women in The Seduction has one on her way, unless she decides to cancel the birth. The structure of The Seduction is as four lines per verse. It is as an ABCB style rhythm , an example of this is for the first verse, here are the endings for each line, morning, docks, city, blocks. Cousin Kate on the other hand is in a more complicated rhythm, it moves in the order ABCBDBEB, here are the endings for the first verse, maiden, air, mates, fair, out, hair, out, care. As you can see, in both poems there is rhyme, whilst each verse in The Seduction is in 4 short lines, Cousin Kate stretches out into double that with 8 lines per verse. In total The Seduction is much longer than Cousin Kate in terms of lines. It has many more than Cousin Kate. The characters in the poems are different though, in Cousin Kate there are three main character, the woman who is recounting her story, the lord and cousin Kate. In simplistic terms , you could call the lord a devourer of souls. He moves from place to place and chooses a woman every so often to fulfil his needs. He leads them to believe that he loves and cares for them but is really just buying them for his own personal pleasure then dumping them just like an item which is bought then left. .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .postImageUrl , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:visited , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:active { border:0!important; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:active , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Wild Honeysuckle Poetry Analysis EssayIn The Seduction , the characters are somewhat similar, the only difference is that there is no other women, the women in this poem is left alone but we hear no more of the man, he leaves as mysteriously as he entered. We hear no more information about him or another women. A distinct similarity between the two would be that both the remorseful women were each fed a kind of drug from their partner who supposedly loved them. In the Seduction it was obviously the alcohol, she woman got too drunk to distinguish anything properly. She giggled, drunk and nervous, and he muttered little slag. In Cousin Kate, it is less obvious and is over a long period of time, the drug administered to her by the lord is money, greed sprouts forth and the other thoughts are clouded or blanked out. He lured me to his palace home-Woes me for joy thereof-To lead a shameless shameful life, As well as there are similarities , there are also differences, in The Seduction , nothing is known about the father, he does not know that he is the father of a child and the woman will most likely never hear from him ever again. It could be counted as a one-night-stand gone wrong. In Cousin Kate, the woman knows the father, the father knows she has a child but he cannot claim it. Cousin Kate has so far not given birth and is not pregnant with any children Yet Ive a gift you have not got , And seem not like to get:. So at the end of the poem there is a hint of vengeance because she knows she has the only male heir to the lords land and cousin Kate who is now with the Lord has so far not bore any children and shows no sign of it. You father would give lands for one to wear his coronet. This is counted as a similarity and also as a difference, there is a strong theme of broken promises in both poems but they are distinctly different. In the Seduction , the woman believed that everything she read in her magazines would come true to her once she found her supposed true love. However not everything turned out it should have, and in a fit of rage tore up her magazines to little pieces which told her lies which did not come true. She grew up believing that everything would be fine and her life would be fantastic once she found her true love. But everything is not always as it should be. The man she met, gave her a night of fun and supposed true love then left her . But not without leaving his mark on her. She did not realise something like this could ever happen to her and lets her anger out on the magazines which never mentioned anything about what happens if it goes wrong, what about the bad things, they mentioned what could happen and now she is paying the price. Now, with a softly rounded belly, she was sickened every morning , by stupid stupid promises , only tacitly made. Finally for similarities, both have children of a mistake in their life , for Cousin Kate, moving in with the Lord and being cast out for better woman later on, and for The Seduction, that one night where everything was going great until later she realised just what a big mistake it was. In both poems the men treat their women like playthings , was this because of the time? Or is it in mens nature? I believe that now, men are much more cautious when with women, after the womans rights acts passing and constant additions other acts, there is now a much lower chance of younger pregnancies. In both stories however, the women are both afraid of what society thinks of them, they are conscious of others feelings about them and wish it could all go away. Cousin Kate was written by Christina Rossetti to show the weaknesses in the Victorian society. Victorians based almost their entire structure upon class and this greatly affected peoples living and rating of each other. .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .postImageUrl , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:visited , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:active { border:0!important; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:active , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A Pastiche continuing from Part I of Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis EssayBastard children were treated very unfairly and were looked down upon like the dregs of society , the men were never blamed for any of this and moved on no matter how many women they took into bed with them. Women however were treated as whores as soon as see had slept with someone other than their husband. I believe that this is marginally the same with The Seduction, however in this case it is more about age that counts. The younger the age you are now, the more looked down upon you become . It is no longer about class, but age that counts, slowly I believe that this is changing but it will take a whil e.

Pluralism and Public Choice free essay sample

Public Choice theory and Pluralism are both expressions of an attempt to critique political structures, analyse the processes that drive them and understand their relative effectiveness in achieving stated political or social goals. The disparate perspectives that can be obtained by application of each of these political ontologies are generated by fundamental differences in these assumed goals and underlying motivators. Pluralism can be defined in its broadest sense as an acceptance of diversity (Wikipedia contributors 2006). This philosophical concept has been used to describe tolerant theological positions, liberal social structures and a political approach that recognises and values diversity. A major proponent of Pluralist ideals as fundamental to defeating the more ignoble of human behaviour was Isaiah Berlin (1909-1997). In his last essay he wrote, â€Å"If pluralism is a valid view, and respect between systems of values which are not necessarily hostile to each other is possible, then toleration and liberal consequences follow†( Berlin 1998). We will write a custom essay sample on Pluralism and Public Choice or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As such, Pluralism in any area of human endeavour is commonly regarded as a characteristic of a free society. When discussing politics, the term is generally used either as a fundamental principle which holds that peaceful coexistence of diverse groups is not only desirable but actually strengthens the democratic process, or to define an inclusive style or flavour of government that seeks to accommodate a range of constituencies and their interests, whether they be based upon morality, philosophy, religion or ethnicity(Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 7-48). Bob Jessop writes â€Å"democratic politics†¦ raises the question of formulating policies that will prove realistic in terms of the overall balance of forces and structural constraints confronting a party or coalition in office† (1990, p. 182). To achieve this pluralist ideal, societies and the governments they elect will develop political forms and structures which protect citizens from the tyranny of the majority. A discussion of political pluralism will often become an analysis of the effectiveness of these protections. This can be judged by a groups input into public debate, a fundamentally important part of the democratic process in successful Pluralist societies (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 47-48). If an elected government is assumed to have garnered support for its policies from a broad range of constituencies it is expected to remain a neutral body mediating the sometimes conflicting interests of its constituents (Roskin et al. 1994, pp. 262-264). To do this relies on rule of law, independent judiciary and a legislative process constrained by a constitution. In a social democratic framework this pluralist approach might be expected to protect citizens from the worst excesses of a purely market driven economy and mitigate the homogenising effects of majority rule. It is the necessity that all groups participate fully in the public debate which often requires a lengthy process of whittling down government proposals by rejecting outcomes which may prove unfavourable to interest groups rather than simply proposing policy on the basis of the common good. Many theorists maintain that this process of conflict and dialogue is not only more effective in achieving successful outcomes than top down imposition of control, but is in fact inevitable. Discussing centrally controlled economic systems, Geoffrey Hodgson suggest that pluralism is a necessary part of all systems; even totalitarian communism inevitably incorporates a black market (1993 pp. 254-262). He writes about an â€Å"impurity principle† which holds that â€Å"there must always be a plurality of economic structures, so that the socio-economic formation as a whole has requisite variety to promote and cope with change† (Hodgson 1993 p. 55). Consequently â€Å"an over centralised economy does not simply threaten economic efficiency in the narrow sense but also political pluralism, local democracy and autonomy† (Hodgson 1993 p. 271). It would appear that many Pluralist thinkers are in agreement that diversity is a given in contemporary societies and the issue is one of garnering recognition for the consequences of the public debate (Grillo 1998). Pluralist theory then proposes the nature of our society requires government to seek to achieve the largest blocks of voters without permanently disenfranchising or alienating others. Governments and institutional bodies carefully frame the presentation of their decisions to be perceived by the widest range of interest groups and constituencies as positive and through this process outcomes are achieved for all society. While in practice the outcomes may remain the same, Public Choice theory examines this process with a very different set of assumptions surrounding the motives for the decisions made by stakeholders. Sometimes called rational choice theory, positive political theory or the private interest model, Public choice theory is fundamentally an economic theory that examines the behaiour of participants in political transactions and analyses the decision-making behavior using tools such as game theory. Though it can be used to make predictive statements about political outcomes it is probably more effective as an analysis tool. At the web page lt;http://www. pubchoicesoc. org/about_pc. htmlgt; one of the foremost public choice theorists, James Buchanan, regularly refers to Public Choice as a research program: rather than as a discipline or even a subdiscipline. A research program incorporates acceptance of a hard core of presuppositions that impose limits on the domain of scientific inquiry while, at the same time, insulating such inquiry from essentially irrelevant criticism. The hard core in public choice can be summarized in three presuppositions: (1) methodological individualism, (2) rational choice, and (3) politics-as-exchange. † (Buchanan 2003) Public Choice is a way of looking at the political process through the lens of social experience. It assumes that an individuals self interest will win out and the political process can be perverted to satisfy unrepresentative groups through this. In an effort to achieve rents or benefits from the government, particular interest groups or even powerful individuals can manipulate decision making processes for their own gain (Buchanan 1962). In short, â€Å"politicians maximise rewards and spells in power and voters maximise net benefits† (Hodgson 1993, p. 92). Importantly, Public choice theory proposes that not only do individuals in a government act out of self interest but so do governments as a whole. Government assistance to industry or support to other specific groups can be seen in this light as an example of governments trying to buy voting blocs. Privatisation of government owned enterprises can also be seen as economically justified moves that can deliver a boon to particular financial groups. Public choice theory contends that Government failure regularly contributes to market failure. Shaw writes: â€Å"public choice is sometimes viewed as a conservative or libertarian branch of economics, as opposed to more liberal (that is, interventionist) wings such as Keynesian economics. This is partly correct. The emergence of public choice economics reflects dissatisfaction with the implicit assumption, held by Keynesians, among others, that government effectively corrects market failures. † (2002) From this we can see it is vital in a pluralist decision making framework that all groups are heard or major discrepancies and the public debate may not achieve what Buchanan and Tullock have called workable unanimity(1999, par. 5. 1. 18). While it is easy to contrast Public Choice theory with the principle and ideals of pluralism, it is also possible to find significant common ground. If Pluralist theory tells us that stakeholders in any given issue will be diverse, Public Choice theory demonstrates that individuals in those groups and government will act in their own self interest. The challenge then is to ensure that the public debate directs the political self serving ends of government to satisfying as many stakeholders as possible and in a manner that does not exclude others. We are going to exist in a pluralist society but an understanding of how Public choice theory affects the way political decisions are made and implemented provides us with the tools we need to ensure that we get the best from it. Part B: Compare the federal and unitary systems of government and how they operate within the Parliamentary (Westminster) system. The Westminster system of democratic government is modelled on the parliament of the United Kingdom. A key aspect of Westminster based Parliaments is that much of the process and procedures are not explicitly specified by constitutional means but rather based on convention handed down from the UK system and refined through the recognition of precedent (Farnsworth 2006). In a Westminster system a democratically elected lower house of parliament forms government through the support of a majority of members. This may require coalition between political parties if one party cannot achieve an outright majority. An important part in successful Westminster systems is an effective opposition from minority parties to apply pressure and demand accountability from the government in the lower house. There is also often an upper house either elected or appointed by the lower house which acts as to give oversight and provide review of the lower house legislation (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 11-116). As the executive branch is appointed from the legislature and is responsible to that house, this system is also known as responsible government (Farnsworth 2006). The executive, Cabinet and the Prime Minister, are accountable to the legislature. This can be contrasted to presidential systems that directly elect the executive. Even in the British system, where the chief executive is the British Monarch, the real political power lies with the Prime Minister and the cabinet, all members of the legislature. Galligan describes responsible government as â€Å"direct majoritarian practices and institutions entailed in executive dominance of a single popularly elected chamber that is legislatively superior† (1995, p. 47). Federal and Unitary systems of government are two common forms worldwide and Westminster systems have been adapted for both. The exact nature of the political system is generally a consequence of the nation building process that formed them. A number of independent nation states are more likely to become a Federation, while a more unified body of people might produce a nitary system of government that centralises power in one body (US Department of State 2006). Particularly common when several independent states are geographically joined, Federalism is a way of organising a nation so that regional sovereign states retain their identity within the greater national system. Effectively two or more levels of government have formal authority over the same area and the po pulace are citizens of both the region and the nation. In this way the federal government can act to minimise marginalisation of any region or group of citizens and share its resources evenly. Federation then is a consequence of the historical need to provide equal representation to sectarian or geographically, politically or even ethnically independent groups (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 111-116). The central or Federal government then has constitutional authority to discharge specific responsibilities and share divided power with regional governments. Most importantly these regional governments have real authority and responsibility to manage their own affairs (Galligan 1995 pp. 8-62). In the Australian example the states have responsibility for Health, Education and Local Government. History also shows us that federal systems can, with agreement, incorporate other states. Perhaps the best known Federal system, the USA, has been expanding since it was created with 13 initial states, most recently adding Alaska and Hawaii with suggestions that territories such as the Puerto Rico and nations such as Haiti and even Cuba could be contenders for future American statehood. In the Australian example it has been suggested the unitary system of New Zealand could be accommodated as perhaps two states of a larger Australasian Commonwealth (Catley, 2001). In contrast to a Federal system, a unitary government holds power in a national legislature. The British legislature for example, birthplace of the Westminster system, makes law without being beholden to regional governments. In practice however the centralised government will often make grants of power to more regional authorities. There has also been a trend in Britain over the last few decades towards more self government for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, a process that has been described as â€Å"a devolution to something approaching a federation of more autonomous regional governments† (US Depth. of State 2006). Richard Lucy writes that federations are sometimes classified on the assumption that they are â€Å"inherently unstable† and either moving towards a Unitary state or â€Å"drifting towards dissolution†. He identifies three stages of federalism: coordinate, cooperative and organic. In the first coordinated stage, the states are equipped with everything they need to maintain authority but stay within their own sphere. In the next, cooperative stage both national and regional authorities are powerful but share or cross over spheres, much like the current Australian system and in the third organic stage the lines of direct control and responsibility are so blurred Lucy suggest it is no longer really a Federation at all (pp. 291-311). From these examples it is possible to identify some convergence in the way the two democratic systems of Australia and Britain are evolving. While a federal style of autonomous regions is being trialled by the British, the Australian system has seen an inexorable move towards more responsibility for the Federal government at the expense of the states. Interestingly, it can be said that the Australian cooperative system is at odds with responsible government because the negotiations with the states make it much more difficult for the governments, federal and state, to pursue the policies they were elected on (Lucy 1993 p. 292). In Australia, much of the tension between Federal and state governments surrounds budgets and hence the ability to fund and implement programs. As the major source of funding from taxation, the federal government can fuel moves to redistribute power, usually in the direction of more central control. This â€Å"New Federalism† has been the hallmark of successive Federal governments of all political persuasions for generations (Galligan 1995 p. 203). It is usually in the form of tied grants; direct payments to state, regional or local authorities to achieve commonwealth goals. Most recently the Howard government has tied funding for state and tertiary education to the acceptance of industrial and workplace changes. Even before the macro-economic reforms of the Hawke government, there was constitutional recognition that the Federal government had Industrial Relations responsibilities based on the view that the nations performance as a whole is dependent on productivity and industrial peace. The current federal government claims to have a popular mandate to undertake a major push in this direction after going to an election fought ostensibly on IR laws in which it won a senate majority. Many states see this as a threat to their right to produce their own IR laws and the debate is yet to be settled in the Courts.