Smoking Cigarettes Should Be Banned as a Drug - 1854 Words

Plague and cholera caused thousands of millions of people dead. Thanks to the medical advances, those diseases were eradicated. Now, when the whole world is worrying about AIDS, which has not found the solution yet; the appearance of tobacco is causing the great harms to human life. Many people think that they have the right to smoke; smoking helps them deal with stress and work more effectively, and they are contributing to their country’s economy when they smoke. On the other hand, people will get addicted to cigarette. Moreovers, smoking has many negative effects on the smokers, the non-smokers, and the environment. Smoking cigarette extremely affects human health. Smoking can cause diseases of the lungs, liver, and heart. Smoker’s life†¦show more content†¦CO bonds to hemoglobin more tightly than CO2 and leaves the body more slowly (â€Å"Tobacco†), which allows CO to build up in the hemoglobin, in turn reducing the amount of oxygen the blood can car ry. Lacking adequate oxygen causes the damages to most of the bodys organs, including the heart and brain. Moreovers, there are thousand of other chemical elements in cigarette such as Arsenic - used in wood preservatives, Benzene - an industrial solvent, refined from crude oil, Cadmium - used in batteries, Nitrosamines - another group of DNA-damaging chemicals, and Tar - a mixture of dangerous chemicals, which adds to the flavor of cigarettes. It is released by the burning of tobacco. As it is inhaled, it enters the air cells of the lungs. This stimulant causes structural changing of bronchial mucosal glands. It affects to bronchial mucous cells and causes of losing cilia cells. These changes will increase the mucus and reduce filtration efficiency of mucus-cilia carpet (â€Å"Smoking and Cancers†). The chemical elements in cigarette are dangerous, â€Å"mutagenic† (â€Å"Tobacco†) which is the capable of increasing the frequency of mutation, or change, in the genetic material, and â€Å"carcinogenic† (â€Å"Tobacco†) which is the cancer causing. Smokers have a high risk of getting cardiovascular diseases. The Health Consequences of Smoking-Cardiovascular Disease: Report of the Surgeon had linked cigarette smoking to cerebrovascular disease (strokes) andShow MoreRelatedEssay On Cigarettes Should Be Banned707 Words   |  3 PagesIf you had the chance to save your own life, or even the lives of everyone around you, would you take it? Choosing to light another cigarette is choosing to commit another murder and taking another stab at your lungs. Smoking is the cause of one in five deaths each year in the United States alone. Since cigarettes can be considered a mass murder, they should be banned. They are dangerous to smokers and everybody around them, and that makes them vulnerable to secondhand smoke. Smokers are more proneRead MoreShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.?1400 Words   |  6 PagesShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.? Tobacco has been around in the world for over 2.5 million years. It was not until a few hundred years ago when the tobacco industry decided to put these crops into use and conjure up tobacco products for the community. A popular tobacco product in society is cigarettes, as they are cheap and simple to use. As long as one is over eighteen, acquiring cigarettes is a straightforward process for a reasonable price, albeit the sin tax. It was not until recentlyRead MoreShould Cigarettes Be Banned in the U.S.?1444 Words   |  6 Pagescommunity. A popular tobacco product in society is cigarettes, as they are cheap and simple to use. As long as one is over eighteen, acquiring cigarettes is a straightforward process for a reasonable price, albeit the sin tax. It was not until recently when cigarettes became widely controversial due to the plant containing nicotine, an addictive drug to the body. Aside from containing nicotine and other hazardous chemicals to the body, cigarettes also cause a whole host of health implications to theRead MoreTaking a Look at Smoking1682 Words   |  7 Pagesworldwide from smoking tobacco; in the United States about 480,000 people die per year (â€Å"General†). That is roughly 1,300 people a day losing their life to the most preventable cause of death in the world. The media will often cover the deaths of celebrities and individuals who die in unique accidents. However, they fail to mention the 1,300 smoking related deaths per day. Why arent these deaths announced when celebrity deaths are the headlines of the day? Teenagers who think smoking is a cool habitRead MoreShould Cigarette Smoking Be Banned?899 Words   |  4 Pages Should Cigarette Smoking Be Banned Whether or not cigarette smoking should be banned completely, has become an object of controversy in many countries. Should cigarette smoking be banned for everyone in the United States? Smoking tobacco products have been around for decades and in many different forms. According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), cigarette smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the United States. Cigarette smoking causes more than 480,000 deathsRead MoreEssay about Smoking Should be Banned in All Public Places1133 Words   |  5 PagesSmoking Should be Banned in All Public Places Every year thousands of people die because of having cancer or other tobacco related illnesses due to smoking. Smoking is seen everywhere from our own television screens to even the world wide web; the internet. Tobacco is the substance that is in these cigarettes. These tobacco products are promoted through tobacco ads that are found almost everywhere you turn. They are in magazines, television screens, on the internetRead MoreShould Cigarette Smoking Be Banned?925 Words   |  4 PagesProfessor Fuentes English 1003 April 22, 2015 Ban smoking in the United States Tobacco use is the single largest preventable cause of diseases and premature death in the United States (U.S.), yet more than 45 million Americans still smoke cigarettes. The health threat posed by tobacco has been accepted by scientists since the 17th century. In 1928, studies linked smoking to cancer. In 1964, the first Surgeon General’s report on cigarette smoking summarized the evidence that tobacco poses seriousRead MoreSmoking Cigarettes Persuasive Essay1032 Words   |  5 Pagesyears now, cigarettes have been used by a variety of people. The majority of people who smoke cigarettes know of the consequences that come with smoking; they are aware of the potential danger they are causing to themselves and the people around them. As the government, you may encounter economic benefits when people buy cigarette packs; however, these economic advantages get outweighed by the disadvantages that also come included. I believe that as the government, you should ban cigarettes in theRead MoreWhy Smoking Should Be Banned884 Words   |  4 Pagespeople smoke? Is smoking really healthy for them? How much does it cost an individual to smoke? What are the costs to society when people smoke? These are all questions that can easily be taken care of by banning cigarette smoking. It is really a disgusting sight to see a woman with a cigarette hanging out of her mouth. It is equally bad to see children with smoking cigarettes. B. Cigarette smoking should be banned, not only in restaurants but everywhere. When someone smokes cigarettes it affects theRead More Smoking should be banned all over the United States Essay1657 Words   |  7 Pages Smoking is an activity that has been around for many years for people to use and adapt into their lifestyle. It is a tool that many people use to help reduce the stresses of life and put them in a comfortable position that enables them to cope with the hectic lifestyle they are living. However, smoking has been scientifically proven to cause many types of cancer, the most common being lung cancer resulting in numerous deaths across the United States. According to BBC, Smoking is a greater cause

Phy Lab Essay - 948 Words

Geometrical Optics: Snells Law PHY101 Lab 12 Date: July 23rd, 2012 Objective: The purpose of this laboratory activity is to develop a set of experimental procedures that answer questions regarding Snells Law and the index of refraction. Ultimately, the experimental procedures you develop will allow the index of refraction to be found for water and cooking oil. 1. Explain how to experimentally determine the index of refraction of two substances. 2. Develop a set of experimental procedures to find the index of refraction for water and cooking oil. 3. Calculate the index of refraction using Snells Law. 4. Explain critical angle and total internal reflection. Materials Materials from Lab Kit: Laser†¦show more content†¦4. Once the ray goes through and refracts in the oil and comes out to air from the curving side of the cell, record the point the ray comes out by drawing a dot on the paper using the pencil. 5. Record the line that the light goes from air to oil, and connect the dot with the intersection point of the vertical line and flat cell side. 6. Measure the angle ÃŽËœ2andφ2. DATA When light passes from one medium to another, air to water for example, part of the light is reflected at the boundary and part of the light gets bent as it passes on to the new medium. The bending of this light is referred to as refraction. A sketch of this is shown below. In this example, n1 is the index of refraction for air. The index of refraction for water is n2. According to Snells Law: n1 sin ÃŽËœ = n2 sin φ n(air)=1 Note: The angles are measured with respect to the normal (vertical). Part of the scientific method is to develop laboratory procedures that test a hypothesis and answer a scientific question. Construct an Excel spreadsheet to calculate the index of refraction for water and cooking oil. Remember that in Excel angular measurement is in radians. Pi radians = 180 degrees. Record Data from the Experiment | ÃŽËœ1 | φ1 | ÃŽËœ2 | φ2 | Angle | 41.5o | 29.9o | 41.5o | 22.5o | radian | 0.23 pi | 0.166 pi | 0.23 pi | 0.125 pi | Calculations—Calculate the Index of Refraction Record Data from theShow MoreRelatedFeasibility Report On Instructions For Building A Folded Paper985 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Folded Paper Gilder as the material to introduce the concept of lift to students in PHYS 101. Problem PHYS 101: Physics for the Nonscientist is a course that aims to introduce the â€Å"nature of physical universe and the application of physical principles to life in the modern world† at Iowa State University (ISU Catalog). According to its syllabus, PHYS 101 is a 3 credits course with only lectures but not labs. 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Contrast and comparison Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley Essay Example For Students

Contrast and comparison Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley Essay I am going to compare and contrast two poems , Cousin Kate written by Christina Rossetti and The seduction by Eileen McAuley. I will pick out important bits from each poem and use them to compare and contrast the poems. The first poem Cousin Kate is all about a rejected woman. In the first four verses she wails her personal pain, about her experiences. She has been cast out and now looks back on her past life experiences with remorse. She has been betrayed by someone the one person she trusted the most. She feels dejected and , looking back on her life, she can see how foolish she was , now there is only pain and anguish. In the next two verses she recounts how her cousin Kate attracted her lords attention. Kate was swept into his home as she was years ago. He tempts Kate same way as she was when she was younger and he took interest in her. In the last two verses, She returns to her own feelings, she talks about what she would have done had she been cousin Kates position then ends the poem talking about her one victory, her pride and her shame. The poem The Seduction is also about a rejected women, this is one of the similarities. The Seduction starts off the morning after a party, a man and a woman are walking with each other, the woman is obviously drunk but the man sobriety is questionable, throughout the poem he seems quite sober. Anyhow, the first two verses are set currently, not exactly in real-time, but like a report it recounts the information. The next verse is a proper recount of the past, the night before. For the next five verses , the poem goes on about what happened that day. Over the next page the scene switches to 3 months later ,the woman is pregnant. For the rest of the poem, the feelings of the woman are described onto the paper. Her pain, her anguish, everything she is going through. First I will compare and contrast the content, the poems Cousin Kate and The Seduction are both, to simplify it down to one word about regret. In Cousin Kate the now husbandless woman has a bastard son and many regrets. She wishes she had not done such a stupid thing. In the Seduction, the woman also has a child with no father and looking back on her life has regrets. Each story is set in a different era yet have their distinct similarities, both women are outcasts from society with their bastards, the women in Cousin Kate has a son, whilst the women in The Seduction has one on her way, unless she decides to cancel the birth. The structure of The Seduction is as four lines per verse. It is as an ABCB style rhythm , an example of this is for the first verse, here are the endings for each line, morning, docks, city, blocks. Cousin Kate on the other hand is in a more complicated rhythm, it moves in the order ABCBDBEB, here are the endings for the first verse, maiden, air, mates, fair, out, hair, out, care. As you can see, in both poems there is rhyme, whilst each verse in The Seduction is in 4 short lines, Cousin Kate stretches out into double that with 8 lines per verse. In total The Seduction is much longer than Cousin Kate in terms of lines. It has many more than Cousin Kate. The characters in the poems are different though, in Cousin Kate there are three main character, the woman who is recounting her story, the lord and cousin Kate. In simplistic terms , you could call the lord a devourer of souls. He moves from place to place and chooses a woman every so often to fulfil his needs. He leads them to believe that he loves and cares for them but is really just buying them for his own personal pleasure then dumping them just like an item which is bought then left. .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .postImageUrl , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:visited , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:active { border:0!important; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:active , .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287 .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uba3105f6b31ed916dd32974ce867b287:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Wild Honeysuckle Poetry Analysis EssayIn The Seduction , the characters are somewhat similar, the only difference is that there is no other women, the women in this poem is left alone but we hear no more of the man, he leaves as mysteriously as he entered. We hear no more information about him or another women. A distinct similarity between the two would be that both the remorseful women were each fed a kind of drug from their partner who supposedly loved them. In the Seduction it was obviously the alcohol, she woman got too drunk to distinguish anything properly. She giggled, drunk and nervous, and he muttered little slag. In Cousin Kate, it is less obvious and is over a long period of time, the drug administered to her by the lord is money, greed sprouts forth and the other thoughts are clouded or blanked out. He lured me to his palace home-Woes me for joy thereof-To lead a shameless shameful life, As well as there are similarities , there are also differences, in The Seduction , nothing is known about the father, he does not know that he is the father of a child and the woman will most likely never hear from him ever again. It could be counted as a one-night-stand gone wrong. In Cousin Kate, the woman knows the father, the father knows she has a child but he cannot claim it. Cousin Kate has so far not given birth and is not pregnant with any children Yet Ive a gift you have not got , And seem not like to get:. So at the end of the poem there is a hint of vengeance because she knows she has the only male heir to the lords land and cousin Kate who is now with the Lord has so far not bore any children and shows no sign of it. You father would give lands for one to wear his coronet. This is counted as a similarity and also as a difference, there is a strong theme of broken promises in both poems but they are distinctly different. In the Seduction , the woman believed that everything she read in her magazines would come true to her once she found her supposed true love. However not everything turned out it should have, and in a fit of rage tore up her magazines to little pieces which told her lies which did not come true. She grew up believing that everything would be fine and her life would be fantastic once she found her true love. But everything is not always as it should be. The man she met, gave her a night of fun and supposed true love then left her . But not without leaving his mark on her. She did not realise something like this could ever happen to her and lets her anger out on the magazines which never mentioned anything about what happens if it goes wrong, what about the bad things, they mentioned what could happen and now she is paying the price. Now, with a softly rounded belly, she was sickened every morning , by stupid stupid promises , only tacitly made. Finally for similarities, both have children of a mistake in their life , for Cousin Kate, moving in with the Lord and being cast out for better woman later on, and for The Seduction, that one night where everything was going great until later she realised just what a big mistake it was. In both poems the men treat their women like playthings , was this because of the time? Or is it in mens nature? I believe that now, men are much more cautious when with women, after the womans rights acts passing and constant additions other acts, there is now a much lower chance of younger pregnancies. In both stories however, the women are both afraid of what society thinks of them, they are conscious of others feelings about them and wish it could all go away. Cousin Kate was written by Christina Rossetti to show the weaknesses in the Victorian society. Victorians based almost their entire structure upon class and this greatly affected peoples living and rating of each other. .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .postImageUrl , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:visited , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:active { border:0!important; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:active , .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53 .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u27a24325522485d53832e65b564abc53:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A Pastiche continuing from Part I of Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis EssayBastard children were treated very unfairly and were looked down upon like the dregs of society , the men were never blamed for any of this and moved on no matter how many women they took into bed with them. Women however were treated as whores as soon as see had slept with someone other than their husband. I believe that this is marginally the same with The Seduction, however in this case it is more about age that counts. The younger the age you are now, the more looked down upon you become . It is no longer about class, but age that counts, slowly I believe that this is changing but it will take a whil e.

Pluralism and Public Choice free essay sample

Public Choice theory and Pluralism are both expressions of an attempt to critique political structures, analyse the processes that drive them and understand their relative effectiveness in achieving stated political or social goals. The disparate perspectives that can be obtained by application of each of these political ontologies are generated by fundamental differences in these assumed goals and underlying motivators. Pluralism can be defined in its broadest sense as an acceptance of diversity (Wikipedia contributors 2006). This philosophical concept has been used to describe tolerant theological positions, liberal social structures and a political approach that recognises and values diversity. A major proponent of Pluralist ideals as fundamental to defeating the more ignoble of human behaviour was Isaiah Berlin (1909-1997). In his last essay he wrote, â€Å"If pluralism is a valid view, and respect between systems of values which are not necessarily hostile to each other is possible, then toleration and liberal consequences follow†( Berlin 1998). We will write a custom essay sample on Pluralism and Public Choice or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As such, Pluralism in any area of human endeavour is commonly regarded as a characteristic of a free society. When discussing politics, the term is generally used either as a fundamental principle which holds that peaceful coexistence of diverse groups is not only desirable but actually strengthens the democratic process, or to define an inclusive style or flavour of government that seeks to accommodate a range of constituencies and their interests, whether they be based upon morality, philosophy, religion or ethnicity(Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 7-48). Bob Jessop writes â€Å"democratic politics†¦ raises the question of formulating policies that will prove realistic in terms of the overall balance of forces and structural constraints confronting a party or coalition in office† (1990, p. 182). To achieve this pluralist ideal, societies and the governments they elect will develop political forms and structures which protect citizens from the tyranny of the majority. A discussion of political pluralism will often become an analysis of the effectiveness of these protections. This can be judged by a groups input into public debate, a fundamentally important part of the democratic process in successful Pluralist societies (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 47-48). If an elected government is assumed to have garnered support for its policies from a broad range of constituencies it is expected to remain a neutral body mediating the sometimes conflicting interests of its constituents (Roskin et al. 1994, pp. 262-264). To do this relies on rule of law, independent judiciary and a legislative process constrained by a constitution. In a social democratic framework this pluralist approach might be expected to protect citizens from the worst excesses of a purely market driven economy and mitigate the homogenising effects of majority rule. It is the necessity that all groups participate fully in the public debate which often requires a lengthy process of whittling down government proposals by rejecting outcomes which may prove unfavourable to interest groups rather than simply proposing policy on the basis of the common good. Many theorists maintain that this process of conflict and dialogue is not only more effective in achieving successful outcomes than top down imposition of control, but is in fact inevitable. Discussing centrally controlled economic systems, Geoffrey Hodgson suggest that pluralism is a necessary part of all systems; even totalitarian communism inevitably incorporates a black market (1993 pp. 254-262). He writes about an â€Å"impurity principle† which holds that â€Å"there must always be a plurality of economic structures, so that the socio-economic formation as a whole has requisite variety to promote and cope with change† (Hodgson 1993 p. 55). Consequently â€Å"an over centralised economy does not simply threaten economic efficiency in the narrow sense but also political pluralism, local democracy and autonomy† (Hodgson 1993 p. 271). It would appear that many Pluralist thinkers are in agreement that diversity is a given in contemporary societies and the issue is one of garnering recognition for the consequences of the public debate (Grillo 1998). Pluralist theory then proposes the nature of our society requires government to seek to achieve the largest blocks of voters without permanently disenfranchising or alienating others. Governments and institutional bodies carefully frame the presentation of their decisions to be perceived by the widest range of interest groups and constituencies as positive and through this process outcomes are achieved for all society. While in practice the outcomes may remain the same, Public Choice theory examines this process with a very different set of assumptions surrounding the motives for the decisions made by stakeholders. Sometimes called rational choice theory, positive political theory or the private interest model, Public choice theory is fundamentally an economic theory that examines the behaiour of participants in political transactions and analyses the decision-making behavior using tools such as game theory. Though it can be used to make predictive statements about political outcomes it is probably more effective as an analysis tool. At the web page lt;http://www. pubchoicesoc. org/about_pc. htmlgt; one of the foremost public choice theorists, James Buchanan, regularly refers to Public Choice as a research program: rather than as a discipline or even a subdiscipline. A research program incorporates acceptance of a hard core of presuppositions that impose limits on the domain of scientific inquiry while, at the same time, insulating such inquiry from essentially irrelevant criticism. The hard core in public choice can be summarized in three presuppositions: (1) methodological individualism, (2) rational choice, and (3) politics-as-exchange. † (Buchanan 2003) Public Choice is a way of looking at the political process through the lens of social experience. It assumes that an individuals self interest will win out and the political process can be perverted to satisfy unrepresentative groups through this. In an effort to achieve rents or benefits from the government, particular interest groups or even powerful individuals can manipulate decision making processes for their own gain (Buchanan 1962). In short, â€Å"politicians maximise rewards and spells in power and voters maximise net benefits† (Hodgson 1993, p. 92). Importantly, Public choice theory proposes that not only do individuals in a government act out of self interest but so do governments as a whole. Government assistance to industry or support to other specific groups can be seen in this light as an example of governments trying to buy voting blocs. Privatisation of government owned enterprises can also be seen as economically justified moves that can deliver a boon to particular financial groups. Public choice theory contends that Government failure regularly contributes to market failure. Shaw writes: â€Å"public choice is sometimes viewed as a conservative or libertarian branch of economics, as opposed to more liberal (that is, interventionist) wings such as Keynesian economics. This is partly correct. The emergence of public choice economics reflects dissatisfaction with the implicit assumption, held by Keynesians, among others, that government effectively corrects market failures. † (2002) From this we can see it is vital in a pluralist decision making framework that all groups are heard or major discrepancies and the public debate may not achieve what Buchanan and Tullock have called workable unanimity(1999, par. 5. 1. 18). While it is easy to contrast Public Choice theory with the principle and ideals of pluralism, it is also possible to find significant common ground. If Pluralist theory tells us that stakeholders in any given issue will be diverse, Public Choice theory demonstrates that individuals in those groups and government will act in their own self interest. The challenge then is to ensure that the public debate directs the political self serving ends of government to satisfying as many stakeholders as possible and in a manner that does not exclude others. We are going to exist in a pluralist society but an understanding of how Public choice theory affects the way political decisions are made and implemented provides us with the tools we need to ensure that we get the best from it. Part B: Compare the federal and unitary systems of government and how they operate within the Parliamentary (Westminster) system. The Westminster system of democratic government is modelled on the parliament of the United Kingdom. A key aspect of Westminster based Parliaments is that much of the process and procedures are not explicitly specified by constitutional means but rather based on convention handed down from the UK system and refined through the recognition of precedent (Farnsworth 2006). In a Westminster system a democratically elected lower house of parliament forms government through the support of a majority of members. This may require coalition between political parties if one party cannot achieve an outright majority. An important part in successful Westminster systems is an effective opposition from minority parties to apply pressure and demand accountability from the government in the lower house. There is also often an upper house either elected or appointed by the lower house which acts as to give oversight and provide review of the lower house legislation (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 11-116). As the executive branch is appointed from the legislature and is responsible to that house, this system is also known as responsible government (Farnsworth 2006). The executive, Cabinet and the Prime Minister, are accountable to the legislature. This can be contrasted to presidential systems that directly elect the executive. Even in the British system, where the chief executive is the British Monarch, the real political power lies with the Prime Minister and the cabinet, all members of the legislature. Galligan describes responsible government as â€Å"direct majoritarian practices and institutions entailed in executive dominance of a single popularly elected chamber that is legislatively superior† (1995, p. 47). Federal and Unitary systems of government are two common forms worldwide and Westminster systems have been adapted for both. The exact nature of the political system is generally a consequence of the nation building process that formed them. A number of independent nation states are more likely to become a Federation, while a more unified body of people might produce a nitary system of government that centralises power in one body (US Department of State 2006). Particularly common when several independent states are geographically joined, Federalism is a way of organising a nation so that regional sovereign states retain their identity within the greater national system. Effectively two or more levels of government have formal authority over the same area and the po pulace are citizens of both the region and the nation. In this way the federal government can act to minimise marginalisation of any region or group of citizens and share its resources evenly. Federation then is a consequence of the historical need to provide equal representation to sectarian or geographically, politically or even ethnically independent groups (Ryan, Parker and Brown 2003 pp. 111-116). The central or Federal government then has constitutional authority to discharge specific responsibilities and share divided power with regional governments. Most importantly these regional governments have real authority and responsibility to manage their own affairs (Galligan 1995 pp. 8-62). In the Australian example the states have responsibility for Health, Education and Local Government. History also shows us that federal systems can, with agreement, incorporate other states. Perhaps the best known Federal system, the USA, has been expanding since it was created with 13 initial states, most recently adding Alaska and Hawaii with suggestions that territories such as the Puerto Rico and nations such as Haiti and even Cuba could be contenders for future American statehood. In the Australian example it has been suggested the unitary system of New Zealand could be accommodated as perhaps two states of a larger Australasian Commonwealth (Catley, 2001). In contrast to a Federal system, a unitary government holds power in a national legislature. The British legislature for example, birthplace of the Westminster system, makes law without being beholden to regional governments. In practice however the centralised government will often make grants of power to more regional authorities. There has also been a trend in Britain over the last few decades towards more self government for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, a process that has been described as â€Å"a devolution to something approaching a federation of more autonomous regional governments† (US Depth. of State 2006). Richard Lucy writes that federations are sometimes classified on the assumption that they are â€Å"inherently unstable† and either moving towards a Unitary state or â€Å"drifting towards dissolution†. He identifies three stages of federalism: coordinate, cooperative and organic. In the first coordinated stage, the states are equipped with everything they need to maintain authority but stay within their own sphere. In the next, cooperative stage both national and regional authorities are powerful but share or cross over spheres, much like the current Australian system and in the third organic stage the lines of direct control and responsibility are so blurred Lucy suggest it is no longer really a Federation at all (pp. 291-311). From these examples it is possible to identify some convergence in the way the two democratic systems of Australia and Britain are evolving. While a federal style of autonomous regions is being trialled by the British, the Australian system has seen an inexorable move towards more responsibility for the Federal government at the expense of the states. Interestingly, it can be said that the Australian cooperative system is at odds with responsible government because the negotiations with the states make it much more difficult for the governments, federal and state, to pursue the policies they were elected on (Lucy 1993 p. 292). In Australia, much of the tension between Federal and state governments surrounds budgets and hence the ability to fund and implement programs. As the major source of funding from taxation, the federal government can fuel moves to redistribute power, usually in the direction of more central control. This â€Å"New Federalism† has been the hallmark of successive Federal governments of all political persuasions for generations (Galligan 1995 p. 203). It is usually in the form of tied grants; direct payments to state, regional or local authorities to achieve commonwealth goals. Most recently the Howard government has tied funding for state and tertiary education to the acceptance of industrial and workplace changes. Even before the macro-economic reforms of the Hawke government, there was constitutional recognition that the Federal government had Industrial Relations responsibilities based on the view that the nations performance as a whole is dependent on productivity and industrial peace. The current federal government claims to have a popular mandate to undertake a major push in this direction after going to an election fought ostensibly on IR laws in which it won a senate majority. Many states see this as a threat to their right to produce their own IR laws and the debate is yet to be settled in the Courts.

Analyse a set of results and investigate the provided hypothesise Essays

Analyse a set of results and investigate the provided hypothesise Essays Analyse a set of results and investigate the provided hypothesise Essay Analyse a set of results and investigate the provided hypothesise Essay Essay Topic: Thesis My name is Khalil Sayed-Hossen, Im a year10 student and am carrying out the Guesstimate coursework task. For this coursework I am going to analyse a set of results and investigate the provided hypothesise. Plan Within the duration of producing this (Guestimate) coursework, I will first investigate the hypothesis given, that people estimate the length of lines better than the size of angles. Once I have done this I will begin to investigate hypothesise of my own. I will need to find away of proving and disproving these hypothesise through analysing relevant data. The data I will be using is from a pooled set of results that members of my class have collected and combined together to form a broad, clearer set of results. To be able to compare a set of results there must be a clear comparison. Since the results of the length of the line were given in the mm and the size of the angle in à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (degrees) there is no clear comparison. To be able to compare these two different types of data I will need to calculate the percentage error for each result. This is done by first calculating the differences between the actual size of the angle and the length of the line, i.e. errors, and then by using the formula: Error à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Correct à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 100 = percentage error Ways in which I can compare this data include, looking at the mean of the results, standard deviation and through producing scatter graphs. Scatter graphs are useful as, once the line of best fit has been drawn we can then analyse the inter-quartile range. I will also use any other methods that become apparent during the duration of this coursework and apply them when investigating my other hypothesis as well. During the course of my investigation I will try and eliminate any bias that might occur. This is most likely to happen when I select a range of data from the pool of results, when selecting specific data I will try and sample as many random data as I can and make sure that it hasnt all come from one person. Collection of data As part of this coursework, a given task was to collect data from random people by asking them to estimate the length of a line in (mm) and the size of an angle in (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½) degrees. Once these results were taken they were then entered onto an X-cell spreadsheet as raw data. This was carried out by each member of the class, and once each of us had completed this task we pooled our results to give a broad, clearer set of data, which could be used to investigate any hypothesise. Data analysis Once all the data has been collected I will begin to make an analysis and apply it to the given hypothesise in the coursework, and also my own hypothesise. Before I can do this I need to change the data from being just raw data, to data I can compare. As said earlier, this can only be achieved by working out the percentage error for each data point for both line guesses and angle guesses. I will now work out the percentage errors. I will start by splitting investigation into different parts, depending on what methods Im using to prove or disprove the hypothesis of line. I will first select the data from the pool that I will use to analyse. This is not as simple as it sounds though. When selecting data from the pooled set of results we need to take into consideration how many males were asked and how many females were asked, this is called stratified random sampling. We do this to prevent any bias. For example, if our pooled set of results contained 40 males and 90 females and we then selected 20 males and 20 females results to analyse, our data would be bias, as the ratio of women to men or men to women would not be the same as the original set of results, and would have changed significant. Stratified random sampling prevents this, and is achieved in this case by taking the number of males and dividing that by the total number of people, and multiplying this figure by however many samples are needed, this will then give the correct ratio of women to men if the process is then repeated for the amount of women. The formula looks like this- Group (male or female) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ total à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ preferred number of data points I will now use this method to select a set of data points from the pooled set of results. In total there are 167 males and females who estimated the line and the angle, of these, 85 were males and 82 were females. So through knowing this information we can now calculate how many results of men and women are needed in my sample of however many data points by using stratified random sampling. Stratified Random Sampling I want to sample forty angle data points from the total of 167. I will now attempt to do this using the stratified random sampling method and formula. Group (male or female) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ total à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ preferred number of data points Males 85 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 167 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 40 = 20.35 *(say 20) Females 82 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 167 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 40 = 19.64 *(say 20) *Rounded to the nearest whole number to give exact amount needed. So from these results I can see that the ratio of males against females is equal when rounded to the nearest whole number. From gaining this information I can now accurately begin to specifically sample 40 random data points from the pooled set of results. My Sample data line angle age gender 1 2000 45 16 M 2 35 52 12 F 3 50 43 45 F 4 50 45 14 M 5 48 40 46 M 6 55 50 14 M 7 25 45 17 F 8 30 40 45 F 9 37.5 32 44 M 10 60 30 14 M 11 100 70 47 F 12 60 40 15 M 13 30 36 14 F 14 50 35 61 M 15 50 40 45 F 16 60 30 41 M 17 30 40 46 F 18 40 40 16 F 19 45 38 36 M 20 30 45 32 F 21 45 40 66 M 22 65 35 34 M 23 55 35 34 F 24 50 40 62 M 25 40 35 46 F 26 40 40 41 F 27 50 45 14 M 28 55 45 50 M 29 40 9 71 F 30 20 45 16 F 31 50 45 14 M 32 40 50 14 M 33 40 45 41 F 34 60 50 15 M 35 70 75 14 M 36 53.2 47.2 28 M 37 40 35 34 F 38 45 45 45 F 39 37 45 79 F 40 10 45 12 F When selecting the data not only did I have to take into account the ratio of males to females but I also have to consider the fact that each persons results may not be reliable, so to prevent this, my data selection was spread throughout the pool and not all from one section, this was another way of preventing bias and unreliable data. Once I had finished selecting my sample data. I noticed that within my set of selected data there was an outlier or anomaly, this I have highlighted in green. This anomaly must be removed and replaced as it is not a fair representation of the average guess of the length of the line, and when calculating the mean of line guesses, the anomaly would have a large weighted effect and would make the mean of the results insignificant and unreliable. Revised set of sample data line angle age gender 1 40 30 78 M 2 35 52 12 F 3 50 43 45 F 4 50 45 14 M 5 48 40 46 M 6 55 50 14 M 7 25 45 17 F 8 30 40 45 F 9 37.5 32 44 M 10 60 30 14 M 11 100 70 47 F 12 60 40 15 M 13 30 36 14 F 14 50 35 61 M 15 50 40 45 F 16 60 30 41 M 17 30 40 46 F 18 40 40 16 F 19 45 38 36 M 20 30 45 32 F 21 45 40 66 M 22 65 35 34 M 23 55 35 34 F 24 50 40 62 M 25 40 35 46 F 26 40 40 41 F 27 50 45 14 M 28 55 45 50 M 29 40 9 71 F 30 20 45 16 F 31 50 45 14 M 32 40 50 14 M 33 40 45 41 F 34 60 50 15 M 35 70 75 14 M 36 53.2 47.2 28 M 37 40 35 34 F 38 45 45 45 F 39 37 45 79 F 40 10 45 12 F This is set of sample data is going to be used through out my investigation of the length of the line. I will now begin my investigation. Firstly, I will begin by converting all the line and angle data points into their percentage errors. As said in my plan, this is done to implement a clear comparison. I will first need to work out all the errors of the data points. We do this by subtracting the just the original guesses from the correct length of the line and size of the angle. I will use Excel to help me with this as through the use of excel we can use simple formulas to work out equations. Testing the hypothesis The hypothesis states that people estimate the lengths of lines better than the size of angles. I will now test this hypothesis by calculating the mean and of both line results and angle results and compare them. Once I have done this I will then implement other methods, such as standard deviation cumulative frequency graph, and inter-quartile range. Comparing data As I mentioned earlier, we need to be able to compare the line an angle guesstimate data, but at the moment there is no comparison. To be able to compare this data we need to find a comparison. The best comparison is to work out the percentage errors for each line guesstimates, and angles guesstimates, as this is relevant to both the two different units of measure and will be easy to compare. First thoughts and assumptions I think from what I know about angles and lines that the hypothesis is wrong and that people will estimate the size of the angle more accurately. When considering the length of a line its difficult to know just how long it is, this is because an exact line length is difficult to visualise, whereas with an angle we know that 90 degrees is a right angle, 180 degrees is a half, and this we can picture in our minds. So when we see an angle we use the visualisations of sizes of angles that we know to be true to estimate the size of another angle, as they have to be either smaller or bigger than these. But when we try an estimate the length of a line its not so easy, as a line has no limitations, it can be as long as we want, but an angle can be no greater than 360 degrees. Also an angle is a fraction of a circle, but a line can be a fraction of a line than has an unimaginable greatness of length. So baring this in mind, when people estimate the size of the angle I think they will be closer to the correct size, than when they estimate the length of a line. Calculating the percentage errors for line guesstimates line age gender Line error Line percentage errors 1 40 78 M -5 -11.11111111 2 35 12 F -10 -22.22222222 3 50 45 F 5 11.11111111 4 50 14 M 5 11.11111111 5 48 46 M 3 6.666666667 6 55 14 M 10 22.22222222 7 25 17 F -20 -44.44444444 8 30 45 F -15 -33.33333333 9 37.5 44 M -7.5 -16.66666667 10 60 14 M 15 33.33333333 11 100 47 F 55 122.2222222 12 60 15 M 15 33.33333333 13 30 14 F -15 -33.33333333 14 50 61 M 5 11.11111111 15 50 45 F 5 11.11111111 16 60 41 M 15 33.33333333 17 30 46 F -15 -33.33333333 18 40 16 F -5 -11.11111111 19 45 36 M 0 0 20 30 32 F -15 -33.33333333 21 45 66 M 0 0 22 65 34 M 20 44.44444444 23 55 34 F 10 22.22222222 24 50 62 M 5 11.11111111 25 40 46 F -5 -11.11111111 26 40 41 F -5 -11.11111111 27 50 14 M 5 11.11111111 28 55 50 M 10 22.22222222 29 40 71 F -5 -11.11111111 30 20 16 F -25 -55.55555556 31 50 14 M 5 11.11111111 32 40 14 M -5 -11.11111111 33 40 41 F -5 -11.11111111 34 60 15 M 15 33.33333333 35 70 14 M 25 55.55555556 36 53.2 28 M 8.2 18.22222222 37 40 34 F -5 -11.11111111 38 45 45 F 0 0 39 37 79 F -8 -17.77777778 40 10 12 F -35 -77.77777778 I will start by investigating the line. I first calculated the errors, by subtracting the correct length of the line away from the guesses. Once I had calculated the errors I was then able to use the percentage error formula: Error à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Correct à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 100 = percentage error In excel we do this in the percentage error column by dividing the first data point in the line error column by 45, then by multiplying this by 100 to find the percentage. This found the percentage error for the first data point, to find the percentage error for all the other data points, because the formula is the same for each of the other data points in this column we simply highlight the first data point using the right click of the mouse, drag down and the formula works out the percentage error in each cell. Calculating the percentage error for angle guesstimates angle age gender Angle error Angle percentage errors (%) 1 30 78 M -6 -16.66666667 2 52 12 F 16 44.44444444 3 43 45 F 7 19.44444444 4 45 14 M 9 25 5 40 46 M 4 11.11111111 6 50 14 M 14 38.88888889 7 45 17 F 9 25 8 40 45 F 4 11.11111111 9 32 44 M -4 -11.11111111 10 30 14 M -6 -16.66666667 11 70 47 F 34 94.44444444 12 40 15 M 4 11.11111111 13 36 14 F 0 0 14 35 61 M -1 -2.777777778 15 40 45 F 4 11.11111111 16 30 41 M -6 -16.66666667 17 40 46 F 4 11.11111111 18 40 16 F 4 11.11111111 19 38 36 M 2 5.555555556 20 45 32 F 9 25 21 40 66 M 4 11.11111111 22 35 34 M -1 -2.777777778 23 35 34 F -1 -2.777777778 24 40 62 M 4 11.11111111 25 35 46 F -1 -2.777777778 26 40 41 F 4 11.11111111 27 45 14 M 9 25 28 45 50 M 9 25 29 9 71 F -27 -75 30 45 16 F 9 25 31 45 14 M 9 25 32 50 14 M 14 38.88888889 33 45 41 F 9 25 34 50 15 M 14 38.88888889 35 75 14 M 39 108.3333333 36 47.2 28 M 11.2 31.11111111 37 35 34 F -1 -2.777777778 38 45 45 F 9 25 39 45 79 F 9 25 40 45 12 F 9 25 When calculating the percentage error for the angle guesstimates, we repeat the same process needed to work out the percentage errors for the line guesstimates. Except in this case we divided the errors by 36, as this was the correct size of the angle. Now that I have calculated the percentage errors for all data points of line and angles within my sample data, I will be able to proceed with my fist method of proving or disproving the hypothesis, this will be by calculating the mean of line percentage errors and angle percentage errors. I will then compare both means. Calculating the mean of the line percentage errors Line percentage errors (%) 11.11111111 22.22222222 11.11111111 11.11111111 6.666666667 22.22222222 44.44444444 33.33333333 16.66666667 33.33333333 122.2222222 33.33333333 33.33333333 11.11111111 11.11111111 33.33333333 33.33333333 11.11111111 0 33.33333333 0 44.44444444 22.22222222 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 22.22222222 11.11111111 55.55555556 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 33.33333333 55.55555556 18.22222222 11.11111111 0 17.77777778 77.77777778 Line percentage errors (%) -11.11111111 -22.22222222 11.11111111 11.11111111 6.666666667 22.22222222 -44.44444444 -33.33333333 -16.66666667 33.33333333 122.2222222 33.33333333 -33.33333333 11.11111111 11.11111111 33.33333333 -33.33333333 -11.11111111 0 -33.33333333 0 44.44444444 22.22222222 11.11111111 -11.11111111 -11.11111111 11.11111111 22.22222222 -11.11111111 -55.55555556 11.11111111 -11.11111111 -11.11111111 33.33333333 55.55555556 18.22222222 -11.11111111 0 -17.77777778 -77.77777778 To calculate the mean percentage error, we need to use the usual method of calculating any mean result. We need to add up all the percentage error data points and divide by how many data points there are. But before we can do this we need to make any negative percentage error data points positive. If this is not done, when we add up all the data, the negative data will subtract itself from any positive data, and this we do not want, as we are only looking at the percentage of which they were away from the correct, weather or not the guess was too high or too low, is insignificant. Adding all percentage errors To add the percentage errors we need to convert the negatives into positives, as said earlier. I did this in excel by squaring each negative percentage, by using the formula ^2, and then square rooting each percentage. Once I had done this I was able to add up all the percentage errors by first highlighting all the data points in the percentage error column and then by using the formula ? in excel, which means the sum of. This gave me the sum of all the percentage errors for the line, and the angle. The sum of the percentage errors for the line was 981.5555556% and for the angles 795%. Line percentage errors (%) Angle percentage errors (%) 11.11111111 16.66666667 22.22222222 44.44444444 11.11111111 19.44444444 11.11111111 25 6.666666667 11.11111111 22.22222222 38.88888889 44.44444444 25 33.33333333 11.11111111 16.66666667 11.11111111 33.33333333 16.66666667 122.2222222 94.44444444 33.33333333 11.11111111 33.33333333 0 11.11111111 2.777777778 11.11111111 11.11111111 33.33333333 16.66666667 33.33333333 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 0 5.555555556 33.33333333 25 0 11.11111111 44.44444444 2.777777778 22.22222222 2.777777778 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 2.777777778 11.11111111 11.11111111 11.11111111 25 22.22222222 25 11.11111111 75 55.55555556 25 11.11111111 25 11.11111111 38.88888889 11.11111111 25 33.33333333 38.88888889 55.55555556 108.3333333 18.22222222 31.11111111 11.11111111 2.777777778 0 25 17.77777778 25 77.77777778 25 24.53888889 23.625 Finding the mean percentage error What I did next was divide both numbers by 40, as this was the amount of data points. I was left with the products, 24.53888889% for the line, and 23.625% for the angles, which were the mean percentage errors. These are highlighted in yellow. The hypothesis states that people estimate lines better than angles. From information I have gathered through calculating the mean result of the percentage errors I have found that my findings contradict the hypothesis, and that people tend to estimate the size of angles better than the length of lines. My assumption that people will estimate the size of the angle better than the length of the line, for reasons mentioned earlier, was found to be true through this investigation. If I were able to make these findings more reliable I would have sampled a larger amount of data from a more extensive pool of data, as this would have decreased the effect that unreliable, bias data had on the mean. I will now investigate through other methods of proving and disproving the hypothesis. Cumulative frequency I could have at this point produced a frequency graph, but due to limitation in time I have decided to produce a cumulative frequency graph as this is a clearer, indicative representation of data, and I will be able to deduce more information from it. If we represent the percentage errors of both line and angle percentage errors individually in frequency tables, we can calculate cumulative frequencies. Once we have done this we can use these new values, when plotted and on a graph, to form a cumulative frequency curve. This is useful as we will be able to find the median from the halfway point, and we will be able to locate the upper and lower quartiles. The upper quartile is 75% and the lower quartile is 25 %. From knowing the upper and lower quartile, we can calculate the inter-quartile range. This is found by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile. The inter quartile range is half of the data distribution and shows how widely spread the data is, if the inter-quartile range is small, then the distribution is bunched together and shows more consistent results, if the inter-quartile range is large, then the distribution is spread and shows a wider variation in results. We can compare both the line inter-quartile range and the angle inter-quartile range, and whichever is smallest, will be the most accurate, as this would mean a smaller percentage error. Line percentage errors cumulative frequency table Line percentage errors (%) Frequency cumulative frequency upper limits 0.-10 4 4 ? 10 11-.20 17 21 ? 20 21-30 5 26 ? 30 31-40 8 34 ? 40 41-50 2 36 ? 50 51-60 2 38 ? 60 61-70 0 38 ? 70 71-80 1 39 ? 80 81-90 0 39 ? 90 91-100 0 39 ? 100 101-110 0 39 ? 110 111-120 0 39 ? 120 121-130 1 40 ? 130 To produce a cumulative frequency table, you first set the boundaries for each group of percentage errors this has been done in the first column. We then count all the percentages that are within the boundaries of that group, and this is then recorded in the frequency column. Once this has been done for each group, we can then calculate the cumulative frequency by adding each of the previous frequency data points to the next, and record each product in the cumulative frequency column. We then state in the in the upper limits column, what the highest percentage error can be. Now that I have produced a cumulative frequency table, I can now start to produce a cumulative frequency graph. Line percentage errors cumulative frequency graph The graph shows the cumulative frequency curve of the line percentage errors. From this curve I can find the lower and upper quartiles. These were; Lower quartile = 13% Upper quartile = 35% From knowing the lower and upper quartiles, I can calculate the inter-quartile range, by simply subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile. Inter-quartile range = (35 13) % = 22% The inter-quartile range of the line percentage error, cumulative frequency graph is 22%. I will now investigate the cumulative frequency graph, of the angle percentage error. Angle percentage errors cumulative frequency table Angle percentage errors (%) Frequency cumulative frequency upper limits 010 7 7 ? 10 1120 14 21 ? 20 2130 11 32 ? 30 3140 4 36 ? 40 4150 1 37 ? 50 5160 0 37 ? 60 6170 0 37 ? 70 7180 1 38 ? 80 8190 0 38 ? 90 91100 1 39 ? 100 101110 1 40 ? 110 111120 0 40 ? 120 121130 0 40 ? 130 I have produced the cumulative frequency table for the angle percentage errors. I can now begin to draw the cumulative frequency graph. Once I have drawn this I will calculate the lower and upper quartiles, and then calculate the inter-quartile range. Once I know the inter-quartile range I will be able to compare the inter-quartile range for the line data and the inter-quartile range for the angle data Angle percentage errors cumulative frequency graph The graph shows the cumulative frequency curve of the angle percentage errors. From this curve I can find the lower and upper quartiles. These were; Lower quartile = 12% Upper quartile = 28% From knowing the lower and upper quartiles, I can calculate the inter-quartile range, by simply subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile as I did for the line percentage cumulative quartiles. Inter-quartile range = (28 12) % = 16% Comparing graph data I have found the inter-quartile range of both line and angle cumulative frequency graphs. Theses were, for the line percentage errors- 22%, and for the angle percentage errors-16%. Its clear to see from these results that the inter-quartile range of the angle percentage errors was much less than the inter-quartile ranges of the line percentage errors. There is a difference of 6% percent between the two results. This shows that there was a wider spread of data for the line percentage errors, and that the accuracy when estimating the lines length was not as precise as when the angles were estimated. I have shown through my investigations that when people estimated the length of a line and the size of an angle, results were more accurate when the size of the angle was estimated. My first thoughts were that people would estimate the size of angles better, as angles are a fraction of a circle, which is limited. But the length of a line is un-limited and it is difficult to visualise the correct length of lines. I believe that my thoughts could be true as the mean and inter-quartile range of the angle percentage errors, were more accurate than the line on both occasions. I have investigated this hypothesis using two different methods, and through them have concluded that people estimate the length of angles more accurately. My findings contradict the given hypothesis. Now that I have finished investigating the given hypothesis, I will begin to investigate my own hypothesis. Hypothesis 2 Females estimate the length of lines and size of angles better than males The above hypothesis is a hypothesis of my own and is one which I will now begin to investigate. I will use the same method of comparing percentage errors as used in the previous investigation. First thoughts Without analysing the comparisons between the results given from the different sexes, its difficult to say weather or not females were more accurate, as at first glance, it is not obvious. Data analysis To be able to compare male and female estimates, I must first divide my sampled data into two sections, one section of male estimates and another section of female estimates. Earlier in my investigation I specifically selected 20 male data points and 20 female data points using Stratified random sampling, to eliminate bias. This is now useful to me as than there is an equal amount of female and male data points, so I will be able to use an analyse my original set of sampled data. I will now separate male and females guesses into two columns and compare the mean of the percentage errors. I will be able to mix line and angle percentage errors as I am comparing how females and males estimate lines and angles generally and not line and angles individually. Male Line and Angle percentage errors Line and Angle percentage errors (%) 1 11.11111 2 4.444444 3 6.666667 4 8.888889 5 11.11111 6 13.33333 7 15.55556 8 17.77778 9 20 10 22.22222 11 24.44444 12 26.66667 13 28.88889 14 31.11111 15 33.33333 16 35.55556 17 37.77778 18 40 19 42.22222 20 44.44444 21 16.66667 22 25 23 11.11111 24 38.88889 25 11.11111 26 16.66667 27 11.11111 28 2.777778 29 16.66667 30 5.555556 31 11.11111 32 2.777778 33 11.11111 34 25 35 25 36 25 37 38.88889 38 38.88889 39 108.3333 40 31.11111 ?=948.3333 To calculate the mean percentage error I first need to add up all the percentage errors. To do this, I will use the ? formula in excel, as used earlier. The number highlighted in green is the sums of the line and the angle percentage errors. To gain the mean of the percentage I need to divide them by 40, as this is the amount of percentage error data points. The product I am left with is 23.70833% this is the mean percentage error for male line and angle estimates. Female Line and Angle percentage errors Line and angle percentage errors (%) 1 22.22222 2 11.11111 3 44.44444 4 33.33333 5 122.2222 6 33.33333 7 11.11111 8 33.33333 9 11.11111 10 33.33333 11 22.22222 12 11.11111 13 11.11111 14 11.11111 15 55.55556 16 11.11111 17 11.11111 18 0 19 17.77778 20 77.77778 21 44.44444 22 19.44444 23 25 24 11.11111 25 94.44444 26 0 27 11.11111 28 11.11111 29 11.11111 30 25 31 2.777778 32 2.777778 33 11.11111 34 75 35 25 36 25 37 2.777778 38 25 39 25 40 25 26.41667 If I repeat the same process used for the male percentage errors, to obtain the mean of the female percentage errors, I am left with the product 26.41667%. This is the mean percentage error for line and angle percentage errors. From calculating the mean percentage errors of line and angle percentage errors, for both genders, I have found that males were more accurate at estimating the size angles and length of lines than females, and that this contradicts my hypothesis. To improve the reliability of my findings I will now investigate standard deviation. Standard deviation Standard deviation is useful to measure the spread of the data. Standard deviation gives a more detailed picture of the way in which data is dispersed around the mean, being the centre of distribution. If the difference between the standard deviation and the mean is large, the data is not consistent and is not typical of the mean. To work the standard deviation, I need to subtract the mean percentage error from each percentage error to create a set of deviations. Once I have done this I need to square each deviation to make a set of squared deviations. I can place this information in a table x (x-x) (x-x)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ x = percentage error x = mean percentage error I then need to average the set of deviations, by finding the mean of the standard deviations. Once I have done this I will need to take the square root so that the answer is back to the original measure, in this case percentage. This can be represented by the formula V ?(x x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ n I will now use my male sample percentage error data, to formulate a table Standard deviation table of male percentage errors x (x-x) (x-x)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 2.777778 -20.9306 438.08801 2.777778 -20.9306 438.08801 4.444444 -19.2639 371.0973 5.555556 -18.1528 329.5232 6.666667 -17.0417 290.41828 8.888889 -14.8194 219.61583 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 11.11111 -12.5972 158.68995 13.33333 -10.375 107.64063 15.55556 -8.15277 66.467659 16.66667 -7.04166 49.584976 16.66667 -7.04166 49.584976 16.66667 -7.04166 49.584976 17.77778 -5.93055 35.171423 20 -3.70833 13.751711 22.22222 -1.48611 2.2085229 24.44444 0.73611 0.5418579 25 1.29167 1.6684114 25 1.29167 1.6684114 25 1.29167 1.6684114 25 1.29167 1.6684114 26.66667 2.95834 8.7517756 28.88889 5.18056 26.838202 31.11111 7.40278 54.801152 31.11111 7.40278 54.801152 33.33333 9.625 92.640625 35.55556 11.84723 140.35686 37.77778 14.06945 197.94942 38.88889 15.18056 230.4494 38.88889 15.18056 230.4494 38.88889 15.18056 230.4494 40 16.29167 265.41851 42.22222 18.51389 342.76412 44.44444 20.73611 429.98626 108.3333 84.62497 7161.3855 13045.912 326.14781 18.059563 Once I had organized the data from smallest to largest in column x, I could calculate column 2(x-x) by subtracting the mean, which is 23.70833, from each percentage error. I then calculated column three (x-x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ by multiplying each data point in column two by power 2, by using the excel formula ^2. Calculating the Standard Deviation Once I had finished formulating the table, I was able to find the Standard Deviation. I need to use the formula V ?(x x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ n. So I firstly had to work out the sum of the (x-x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ column, the product was 13045.912. I then divided this number by 40, to find the mean of the data, as this is the number of data points and the product was 326.14781.The final calculation I had to make to conclude with the standard deviation was to square root the mean, as I needed to find the original unit of measure, in this case it was percentage. The standard deviation of the male line and angle estimates is 18.1% to 3.sf. Standard deviation table of female percentage errors x (x-x) (x-x)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0 -26.4167 697.84045 0 -26.4167 697.84045 2.777778 -23.6389 558.79721 2.777778 -23.6389 558.79721 2.777778 -23.6389 558.79721 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 11.11111 -15.3056 234.26017 17.77778 -8.63889 74.63042 19.44444 -6.97223 48.611991 22.22222 -4.19445 17.593411 22.22222 -4.19445 17.593411 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 25 -1.41667 2.0069539 33.33333 6.91666 47.840186 33.33333 6.91666 47.840186 33.33333 6.91666 47.840186 33.33333 6.91666 47.840186 44.44444 18.02777 325.00049 44.44444 18.02777 325.00049 55.55556 29.13889 849.07491 75 48.58333 2360.34 77.77778 51.36111 2637.9636 94.44444 68.02777 4627.7775 122.2222 95.80553 9178.6996 26785.15 669.62875 25.877186 Once I had organized the data from smallest to largest in column x, I could calculate column 2(x-x) by subtracting the mean, which is 26.41667 from each percentage error. I then calculated column three (x-x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ by multiplying each data point in column two by power 2, by using the excel formula ^2. Calculating the Standard Deviation Once I had finished formulating the table, I was able to find the Standard Deviation. I needed to use the formula V ?(x x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ n. So I firstly had to work out the sum of the (x-x) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ column, the product was 13045.912. I then divided this number by 40, to find the mean of the data, as this is the number of data points and the product was 326.14781.The final calculation I had to make to conclude with the standard deviation was to square root the mean, as I needed to find the original unit of measure, in this case it was percentage. The standard deviation of the male line and angle estimates is 25.8% to 3.sf. Comparing data From investigating my hypothesis, I have found that through investigating the mean of the percentage errors for male and female estimates, males were more accurate. But when I investigated the percentage errors through standard deviation, I found that females were more consistent with estimating and that female estimates were more typical of the mean than male estimates. But this is irrelevant as the data still shows that males were more accurate as the standard deviation of the male estimates was 18.1% and the standard deviation of female estimates was 25.8%, which is a difference of 7.7%. My findings contradict my hypothesis and males were more accurate at estimating lengths of lines and size of angles. Evaluation I believe that I have investigated both hypotheses as much as I could have in the time I have been given. The conclusions I have come to through my findings were based upon the data pooled by my class. I believe that some of this data may have been unreliable due to errors etc. I believe that with a more extensive pool of data, my findings would have been more conclusive an indicative a true representation. I have reached the end of my investigation. If the time allocation was greater, I could have investigated another hypothesis such as Younger people estimate lines and angles better than older people.

5 Fluctuating Forms of Gender-Specific Language

5 Fluctuating Forms of Gender-Specific Language 5 Fluctuating Forms of Gender-Specific Language 5 Fluctuating Forms of Gender-Specific Language By Mark Nichol The English language is riddled with suffixes that specify gender, and efforts to mirror the slow-but-sure improvement in gender equality are reflected in shifting usage in this area. Such progress, however, is inconsistent. Here’s where we stand with various treatments: 1. -ess Words altered to include an -ess ending to specify reference to a woman are generally going by the wayside: Often, a female movie, television, or theater performer is identified as an actor (though performing-arts awards retain best-actress categories), whereas terms for female members of royalty such as princess and duchess, in keeping with the anachronistic survival of the concept, persist. Likewise, there’s no reason to genderize host or waiter, or author or poet, but we hold on to enchantress, goddess, and mistress. (And, if we have any sense, we hold on to enchantresses, goddesses, and mistresses.) In addition, as you know, stewards and stewardesses were transformed into flight attendants long ago. (The U.S. Navy, by the way, no longer uses steward as an official term for an officers’ attendant.) 2. -e English preserves a few terms derived from French in which an e is appended to the end of the masculine form of some words to refer to a woman, including fiancee and confidante. Conversely and obscurely a man who divorces his wife is a divorce (like the feminine form, pronounced â€Å"di-vor-say† and, in print, with an acute accent mark over the e). 3. -trix Another French form, -trix, is obsolete when referring to a female aviator, but English preserves the form in dominatrix, even though one rarely refers to a dominator (not in polite company, anyway). 4. -ine and -ina Hero applies to male and female do-gooders alike (and retiring heroine avoids the accidental misspelling as heroin). But what about those heroes of the US government, the drug czars and the energy czars and their ilk? (The word czar is the more modern Russian form the older variant is tsar of Caesar.) No president has appointed a female czar, but if that happened, would we refer to her as a czarina? Not likely, except in jocular usage. 5. -woman and -person The same folks who bristle at being scolded when they refer to humankind as mankind will no doubt fuss about this next point, but don’t use the suffix -man unless you’re referring to a man: It’s not necessary to employ the cumbersome term chairperson to refer to a female presiding or administrative officer or the position itself, or to distinguish between a chairman and a chairwoman; just say chair. (No, chair is not just the word for a piece of furniture; it’s the time-honored term, on its own, for an elected or appointed position.) Unfortunately, no such shortcut exists for referring to members of legislative bodies, but congresswoman and assemblywoman are no-brainers. The nonspecific terms congressmember and assemblymember are attested but fairly rare; the open forms (with Congress and Assembly capitalized) are more common. (â€Å"Member of Congress† is also frequently employed, but â€Å"member of the Assembly† is not.) But what do you call a woman who likes to fish (other than, um, a great catch?). Fisherwoman may seem awkward, but that’s just because we’re not used to it yet. As is the case with chairwoman or congresswoman, it’s a matter of only one more small syllable inserted in an already lengthy word. If you’re a man who washes clothes for a living, do you want to be referred to as a washerwoman, just because that’s the dominant usage? By rejecting gender-neutral language, you’re subjecting half the population to the same indignity. This isn’t political correctness run rampant; it’s inevitable and inexorable usage correction, part of the evolution of language (with the obligatory Neanderthal-like branch stubs on the evolutionary tree like waitron and waitperson as gender-neutral forms of waiter). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:36 Adjectives Describing LightAcronym vs. InitialismTreatment of Words That Include â€Å"Self†

Basque History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Basque History - Essay Example While the ETA did declare a unilateral cease-fire on March 22, 2006, on September 23, 2006, the organization announced that it would resume hostilities until the achievement of Basque independence (ETA). To understand the sentiments at work in all three of these documents - particularly the harsh dichotomies of the Arana piece - it is good to have an understanding of the dynamics at work within the ETA. To people outside of the Basque region, and, in particular, outside of Spain, the mission of the ETA sounds just like one of many small revolutionary groups, agitating for its own few square miles of self-determination, if only to avoid the larger taxing entities in the country around it (Funes, p. 499). Each of these little splinter groups has its own manifesto that spouts idealistic words and phrases, its own shrill anthem that sounds to the modern person listening from abroad much like, quite frankly, the declarations that leapt from the American colonies to the government of Great Britain in the later days of the eighteenth century. The modern chapter of the Basque story begins during the reign of Francisco Franco, and his attempts to drive the Basque nation off the very face of the planet. Because there had been Basque sympathizers with the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, Franco decided to eliminate any signs of Basque culture from the public consciousness. The Basque flag could not be displayed; Basque holidays could not be publicly celebrated; teaching the Basque language, or even speaking it in public, were forbidden; baptizing children who did not have Spanish surnames was proscribed (Sullivan, p. 88). This crackdown against non-Spanish cultures was not carried out throughout the country, however. While Guipuscoa and Biscay were also singled out for this attempted annihilation of local culture, because of their ostensible sympathies with the Republican cause, other territories were left alone. Because the regions of Alava and Navarre had been allied with Franco's faction during the Spanish Civil War, those regions were permitted to keep a reasonable degree of self-government (Clark 1984, pp. 82-84). The results of this cultural attempt at extermination may have been predictable. Once the civil war ended, many Basques left the rural parts of Castile, Galicia, Extremadura, and Andalusia, which diluted the identity of those regions, in which only a percentage of the initial Basque population remained (Hamilton, p. 138). The rest of the world, however, took notice of this repressive activity. Beginning with the excesses of the Franco era and ending with the transition in Spanish government to a democracy in 1975, the ETA received gestures of sympathy from around the globe. The peak of this support came in 1970, after the controversial "Burgos Trials," in which the Franco government showed its cruel and oppressive side to an international audience (Clark 1984, p. 128). The tide of international opinion, however, began to turn against the ETA as the 1970's progressed. In 1973, the ETA assassinated Franco's successor, Almirante Luis Carrero Blanco, and became increasingly radical after Spain became a democracy. The kidnapping and assassination of Miguel Angel

Final project - brief therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Final project - brief therapy - Essay Example PsycINFO: PsycINFO , from the American Psychological Association (APA), contains nearly 2.4 million citations and summaries of scholarly journal articles, book chapters, books, and dissertations, all in psychology and related disciplines, dating as far back as the 1800s. 98 percent of the covered material is peer-reviewed. Journal coverage, which spans 1887 to present, includes international material selected from more than 2,200 periodicals in more than 27 languages. PsycARTICLES : PsycARTICLES, from the American Psychological Association (APA), is a definitive source of full-text, peer-reviewed scholarly and scientific articles in psychology. The database contains more than 100,000 articles from 59 journals - 48 published by the American Psychological Association (APA) and 11 from allied organizations. It includes all journal articles, letters to the editor and errata from each journal. Coverage spans 1894 to present. The researcher searched for full text materials on Brief Therapy and 536 matches came out. The first three matches that came out spoke of Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT). On reading the first article, the researcher got interested in this area of Brief therapy and decided to limit research to SFBT. Using the keywords Solution-Focused Brief Therapy, 92 matches came out. The researcher selected articles on the general application of SFBT to younger clients of therapy, and that meant children and youth. Upon reading the above-mentioned articles, the researcher got to understand the philosophy and concepts behind Solution-Focused Brief Therapy, and its promising contributions to the field of Brief Therapy. The authors claim that literature on SFBT is growing, as more and more counselors are vouching for its effectiveness as a short-term therapy program. Such claims and the foundations from which it spring forth shall be discussed in further detail in Part 2 of this

Imitation Plato and Aristotle Essay Example for Free

Imitation Plato and Aristotle Essay Introduction Plato and Aristotle are two famous literary critics in ancient Greece. Aristotle is Plato’s student. They all agree that art is a form of imitation. However, their attitudes towards imitation are profoundly different. Plato claims that poetry is worthless and bad because it is mere imitation and may have bad influence on human beings. Instead, though Aristotle admits that poetry is imitation, he thinks that it is all right and even good. He also explains that imitation of life should be valued rather than discounted (â€Å"Plato and Aristotle†). This paper is to discuss the different understandings of Plato and Aristotle on imitation. Imitation of Plato Plato thinks that poetry is a form of imitation. However, he is deeply suspicious of the arts because, in his view, they appeal to the emotions rather than to the intellect (Michael). He thinks that this imitation is far removed from the reality and it is only a â€Å"game†. As a result, it is worthless and bad. He also claims that imitation in tragedy can have a bad influence on human beings. As he says in The Republic, a good imitation can undermine the stability of even the best humans by making us feel sad, depressed, and sorrowful about life itself. Firstly, Plato claims that an imitation is at three steps removed from the reality or truth of something (â€Å"Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation†). In Plato’s opinion, knowledge of truth and knowledge of good are virtually inseparable. If there is no truth, there is no good too. As a result, he counsels rejection of the physical in favor of embracing reason in an abstract, intellectual, and ultimately more human, existence (Stephen). Plato thinks that the world of appearance does not really represent the reality because in his opinion, it is the forms which can only represent the essence of the world. The tangible world is imperfect because there are many kinds of appearance but there is only one thing that is true—idea. As a result, art widens the gap between truth and the world of appearances (Stephen). We can see that from his book The Republic. In Book X of The Republic, Plato’s prolocutor Socrates says that there are plenty of tables and beds in the world, but there are only two ideas or forms of them—one of a bed and the other of a table. He also says that the makers of the table and the bed make them for our use according to the ideas, but no artificer can make the ideas themselves. Worse still, painters draw a bed or a table according to the ones made by the artificers. As a result, Socrates concludes that imitative art is at three steps far removed from authentic reality (Michael). There is a sentence that can well show Plato opinion, â€Å"the tangible fruit of any human labor is an indistinct expression of truth (Plato, Book X). From this sentence, we can see that in Plato’s opinion, art as an imitation is irrelevant to what is real. Secondly, Plato also thinks that artists offer nothing important and meaningful in their imitation. As a result, he concludes that imitation is only a kind of â€Å"game†. Here is the good evidence, in The Republic; Socrates concludes that imitation is a kind of game and not something to be taken seriously. He explains that such imitation is disengaged from the realm of knowledge and truth-testing entirely, constituting an autonomous, arbitrary game onto itself (Bo). Plato thinks that imitation is a game because it engages only the appearance rather than the truth. He mentions in his book The Republic that imitation is far removed from the truth, for it touches only a small part of each thing and a part that is itself only an image. And that, it seems, is why it can produce everything. He uses the painter as an example. He says that the painter is not the maker of things, but the imitator of which others have made. Thirdly, Plato claims that a good imitation can undermine the stability of even the best humans by making us feel sad, depressed, and sorrowful about life itself (â€Å"Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation†). In Plato’s opinion, imitation may pose a challenge to philosophy and even can have a bad influence on people because imitation can be false, and false imitation can mislead people. No matter art is perfect in its imitative process or art is flawed, it is not only worthless, but also a challenge to truth in general (Stephen). In The Republic, Plato writes that The power which poetry has of harming the good (and there are very few who are not harmed) is surely an awful thing. Here, we can see that he suggests that art is a potential danger to society. As a result, Plato’s critique of art  as imitation is linked to a negative appraisal of its social utility: Art is dangerous, for its appeal to the irrational distracts us from the legitimate claims of reason (Bo). As it was mentioned above, we can see that Plato admits that art is imitation. However, he is deeply suspicious of the arts because he thinks that firstly, an imitation is removed from the reality or truth of something; secondly, it offers nothing important and meaningful; thirdly, imitation can have a bad influence on human beings. As a result, he concludes that imitation is worthless and even bad. Imitation of Aristotle Aristotle is Plato’s student. However, he holds a very different attitude towards imitation. Aristotle also admits that art is imitation, but according to him, this kind of imitation is all right and even good. He explains that firstly, imitation is a creative process of selection, translation, and transformation from one media to another (Stephen). Secondly, tragedy can be a form of education that provides moral insight and fosters emotional growth and a successful tragedy even produces a catharsis in the audience (Michael). Thirdly, he also thought that imitation is natural to humans from childhood (â€Å"Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation†). Firstly, in Aristotle’s opinion, imitation is a creative process of selection, translation, and transformation from one media to another. Plato claims that imitation is far removed from the truth or is only a small part of truth. However, Aristotle thinks that imitation can reflect the truth in a better way because it is a creative process. According to Aristotle, the world exists in an infinitely diverse series of parts; human beings can have a good knowledge about these parts by observation and scrutiny (Stephen). As a result, different from Plato’s opinion that artists offer nothing important and meaningful in their imitation, Aristotle concludes that artists are makers, selecting certain details, excluding others, giving a work its particular shape, not a deceitful scribe (Stephen). Here, we can see that according to Aristotle, imitation is a distillation of universal truths from contingent, merely and particular facts rather than an arbitrary game because to submit something to literary imitation is not in the least to attempt to be true to its  appearance, although it is an attempt to be true to its truth (Bo). Secondly, to Aristotle, imitation such as tragedy can be a form of education that provides moral insight and fosters emotional growth and a successful tragedy even produces a catharsis in the audience. According to Plato, imitation can be a danger to the society because imitation can be false and false imitation can mislead people. However, to Aristotle, imitation such as tragedy can be a form of education that provides moral insight and fosters emotional growth (â€Å"Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation†). Aristotle even characterizes tragedy as effecting the catharsis of pity and fear† in his Poetics because with tragedy as the catalyst, people will develop their knowledge of good. As a result, we can see that Aristotle treats imitation as an ethical endeavor rather than a danger to the society (Stephen). Thirdly, Aristotle also thought that imitation is natural to humans from childhood and imitation makes human beings different from other living creatures. We can find the evidence in his Poetics. In this book, he mentions that the instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being is that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest lesson. From his description, we can see that in Aristotle’s opinion, human beings begin imitating as early as when they are children. Imitation not only enables human beings to gain knowledge about the world, but also makes human beings a distinctive creature. As it was mentioned above, we can see that Aristotle holds a very different attitude towards imitation from Plato’s. According to Aristotle, imitation is a creative process and a form of moral education. It is also natural to humans from childhood and imitation makes human beings different from other living creatures. As a result, he concludes that imitation is all right and even good. It should also be valued rather than discounted Conclusion Though both Plato and Aristotle are two famous literary critics in ancient Greece almost at the same time and they all admit that art is a form of imitation, their attitudes towards imitation are very different. Plato claims that poetry is worthless and bad because firstly, it is far removed from the truth or idea; secondly, it is mere imitation and just a â€Å"game†; thirdly, it can have a bad influence on people; however, Aristotle thinks that imitation is all right and even good because firstly, imitation is a creative process; secondly, it is a form of moral education; thirdly, It is natural to humans from childhood. Works Cited Aristotle. Poetics. 11 November, 2007. . Bo Earle. â€Å"Plato, Aristotle, and the imitation of reason. † Philosophy and Literature. October, 2003: 382. Michael Moor. An introduction to Plato and Aristotle and their significance to the performing arts. 6 October, 2007. http://web. ukonline. co. uk/michaelmoor/an_introduction_toplato_andari. htm Plato and Aristotle. 25 October, 2005. . Plato and Aristotle on Art as Imitation (Mimesis). 8 November, 2007. . Plato. Republic. Peking: China Social Sciences Publishing House, 1999. Stephen Conway. Plato, Aristotle, and Mimesis. 8 November, 2007. .